Sudan: Sexual violence, summary executions, and systematic abuses amid escalating conflict
Appearing exhausted and in deep despair, this woman was found on the side of a road in a remote area, searching for safety. She survived the killings fields of El Fasher, but at what cost? Who knows what she experienced there or who she had to leave behind? (File photo: Thomas van Linge @ThomasVLinge on X)
Report by Ayin Network for Sudan Media Forum
Sudan has witnessed a steep escalation in violent conflict, with the number of civilian deaths increasing by two-and-a-half times compared with the previous year. At least 500 cases of sexual violence have been recorded, alongside a rise in summary executions, arbitrary detention, and the targeting of critical infrastructure.
These figures reflect the scale of the humanitarian tragedy, but they also represent legal indicators that warrant scrutiny under international law. They raise critical questions about whether these violations are sporadic incidents driven by the chaos of war, or part of a systematic pattern that may amount to war crimes or crimes against humanity.
In light of these developments, questions arise over the legal elements that define sexual violence or summary executions as war crimes, and when such acts become crimes against humanity in terms of method and scale. Lawyer Abdelbaset El Haj said these acts constitute some of the most serious international crimes, noting that criminal intent can be inferred from the high number of civilian casualties, the types of weapons used and the targeting of populated areas.
As the conflict continues, questions are also emerging about potential pathways for accountability — whether through expanding the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC), establishing independent international investigative mechanisms, or pursuing transitional justice processes that may emerge in the post-war period.
Sexual violence: figures and testimonies
Hala El Karp, regional director of the Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa, told Ayin that the figure cited by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Türk — documenting 500 cases of sexual violence in Sudan within a year — does not reflect the true scale of the violations.
She said documentation carried out by the initiative between 2023 and December 2025 recorded around 1,900 cases across different regions of Sudan.
According to El Karp, documentation of these crimes began in Khartoum, which experienced a wave of sexual violence, before spreading to Gezira state and other areas, and later to Darfur following the fall of the city of El Geneina, where the violations intensified significantly.
These violations are not limited to women and girls but affect entire families and communities, both urban and rural, she said, noting that attacks on women are often used as a means of attacking the wider community.
The crimes also have profound long-term psychological and social consequences, including births resulting from forced pregnancies and trauma that may affect generations.
The systematic nature of violations
El Karp said sexual violence in Sudan cannot be understood as isolated acts. Instead, it has been documented in organised patterns that may amount to war crimes and genocide.
Darfur has seen clear ethnic targeting of specific groups, often under the supervision of leaders of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Areas east of El Gezira have also experienced a similar pattern of organised violence.
More than 70 per cent of recorded rapes occurred in the context of gang rape, including assaults on buses carrying passengers or on public streets in front of passers-by. Such incidents, she said, reflect the systematic nature of these crimes rather than isolated individual acts.
Documentation and protection of victims
El Karp said documenting these violations is extremely difficult due to an environment of silence, fear, and social stigma.
Threats often persist even after the RSF withdraw from certain areas. Women are sometimes subjected to further abuses by other military groups, including sexual slavery, humiliation, arrest, and false accusations of collaborating with parties to the conflict.
These conditions complicate efforts to demonstrate the “systematic nature” or “organised policy” behind the crimes without exposing victims to further harm, highlighting the need for stronger protection and documentation strategies.
In terms of legal responsibility, El Karp said accountability should extend beyond direct perpetrators to include leaders who allowed, condoned, or failed to prevent the abuses, including those at military and political levels.
She also said survivors in Sudan continue to be denied access to justice, both in terms of official recognition of their suffering and access to compensation or reparations, exacerbating the psychological and social impact of the violations.
The health of victims has also been affected, including the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and unexplained deaths among young men and women. She said investment in responses to these crimes remains weak, both from international actors and local authorities, reflecting the absence of a clear strategy to address the humanitarian crisis.
When do violations become international crimes?
Referring to definitions in the Rome Statute, lawyer, and justice practitioner Abdelbaset El Haj told Ayin that sexual violence is inherently criminal, representing a direct attack on human security and dignity and leaving deep psychological harm for victims, particularly women and girls.
When sexual violence occurs during armed conflict, it can take two legal classifications. It may constitute a war crime if committed against civilians or as part of deliberate attacks against them.
If the attacks are widespread and systematic across multiple areas — and sexual violence is shown to be part of an organised policy by an armed group — the crimes may qualify as crimes against humanity. Both classifications fall within the category of serious international crimes.
El Haj said the high number of civilian casualties can itself indicate criminal intent. The use of weapons that cause disproportionate harm, or the targeting of populated areas, may further demonstrate deliberate attacks on civilians unless justified by clear military necessity.
Leadership responsibility and accountability pathways
El Haj said the principle of command responsibility applies to military commanders making decisions on the ground, as well as senior commanders with the authority to issue or halt orders and oversee military operations directly or indirectly.
Responsibility may also extend to political actors if they are found to have incited or encouraged crimes in violation of the rules of war and international criminal law.
On international accountability, El Haj said expanding the jurisdiction of the ICC in Sudan would be an important step. However, he noted that this also depends on the willingness of the Sudanese state to cooperate with the court and strengthen the role of the national judiciary, which remains central to achieving justice.
He added that the ICC cannot address all violations and cannot replace national judicial systems.
International and regional investigative committees are already examining alleged violations in Sudan. Meanwhile, transitional justice — involving national organisations and victims’ communities — may provide another pathway focused on reconciliation, accountability, and healing.
Drones and the targeting of infrastructure
In 2025, the effects of Sudan’s armed conflict have extended beyond crimes against civilians to include shifts in military tactics and technology.
Mohamed Badawi, director of the African Centre for Justice and Peace Studies, said drones and modern technology are increasingly shaping military operations, with direct consequences for civilians and critical infrastructure.
He said the use of drones represented a significant shift in Sudan’s conflict during 2025. Previously used mainly in civilian fields such as agriculture and research, drones have become multi-purpose tools in armed conflict.
Launched remotely, they allow forces to monitor and conduct operations over long distances. Drones have been observed in areas such as El Geneina and Nyala, while their presence in El Fasher remained limited during the early stages of the conflict.
While drones do not resolve the conflict, Badawi said they can exhaust opposing forces, open multiple fronts simultaneously and restrict the movement of adversaries.
Modern technologies — including satellite imagery and digital mapping tools such as Google Maps — have also improved the accuracy of targeting during military operations.
Targeting infrastructure and militarising society
Badawi said the use of drones has expanded the scope of attacks to include power plants, water facilities, ports, and economic infrastructure.
Such strikes have direct consequences for civilians, affecting energy supplies and access to essential resources.
He said these attacks may not always be incidental damage but could represent deliberate strategic pressure aimed at weakening an opponent’s ability to continue fighting. Similar patterns have been seen elsewhere in the world, where attacks on energy and water infrastructure have disrupted services and increased prices globally.
Badawi also warned about the growing militarisation of Sudanese society, particularly the recruitment of young people.
He said the phenomenon is not new and dates back to conflicts in South Sudan during the late 1980s, but has intensified significantly in recent years.
The militarisation of society, he said, shifts the broader culture from civilian life towards military values. Children and young people become more accustomed to weapons and violence, while military parlance begins to replace civilian vocabulary.
This transformation weakens the aspiration for peaceful life and links access to services or opportunities with joining armed forces or militias, undermining civil society, and increasing the risk of regional conflict expansion.
The Sudan Media Forum and its member institutions publish this article, prepared by Ayin Network, to highlight the sharp rise in civilian deaths during the past year. The number of deaths has increased by two-and-a-half times compared with 2025. This article examines the impact of the war between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the RSF on civilians, including crimes committed against them and evolving military tactics such as the growing use of drones and advanced technology. It also explores the consequences for civilians, critical infrastructure, and the broader militarisation of society.
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